The Labyrinthici of Ceylon

The order Labyrinthici, although represented only by nine species, is the most important group of Ceylon fresh water food fishes. The reader is referred to Weber and Beaufort (1922), and Day (1878-1888), for a complete synonomy of each species. In every description, the colours, shape and proportions were observed in living specimens.

I have received assistance in collecting specimens for this paper from Messrs. J. Dassanaike, D. Obeysekere, H. Stork, J. R. P. Perera, N. D. Evans, N. Seneviratna, R. D. Bandaranayaka, W. P. Perera, Mudaliyar J. E. Perera, Maha Mudaliyar J. P. Obeysekere, Rattai Mahatmaya P. B. Bulankulame, A. Hensman of the Forest Department, Dr. P. E. Pieris of the Civil Service and Miss L. A. Pieris, to all of whom I wish to express my thanks.

The order Labyrinthici is divisible into three sub-orders Ophicephaloidea , Luciocephaloidea and Anabantoideai. The suborder Luciocephaloidea , which is not found in Ceylon, occupies an intermediate position and contains several characters from each of the other suborders.

Order Labyrinthici

Scaly teleosts as dependant on aerial as on branchial respiration. Suprabranchial air chambers present, with or without a respiratory organ inside. Air bladder present or absent, physoclist when present, extending almost to caudal fin. This prolongation may or may not possess a median septum. ¹ Four well developed gill arches. Pseudobranchiae absent. Mouth bordered by intermaxillaries. Maxillaries edentulous, parasphenoid dentigerous. Ventral fins thoracic. Scales cycloid, ctenoid or both.

Sub-order Ophicephalidea

Spineless, elongate and sub-cylindrical anteriorly, compressed posteriorly. Head depressed, altering in shape with age, the lower jaw becoming prominent and the interorbital space depressed. Head shields cycloid with. concentric marginal rings, are more or less uniform in their arrangement for each species. Body scales cycloid and of medium size covered with numerous striae. Mouth protractile, large. Teeth in closeset cardiform bands interspersed with canines which are present or absent on the vomers and palatines; always absent from the intermaxillaries and always present on the mandibulars. Gill membranes naked, united but free from isthmus. Branchiostegals 5. Two accessory pharyngeal air cavities assist respiration and enable the fishes to withstand rigorous dry conditions for many hours, No suprabranchial organs. Transpiration occurs through the vascular mucous membrane which lines these cavities, the surface of which is increased by the presence of ridges and papillae. These cavities are kept filled with air through the mouth, for which purpose the fishes rise to the surface, and are as dependant on aerial as on branchial respiration and die within a few hours if prevented from access to the surface. Fins spineless, dorsal and anal long, the origin of the former anterior to the origin of the latter by about half the length of the base of the anal or by about one-third its own base. Ventrals thoracic when present. The lateral line descends once in a step-like gradation. Two pyloric caeca always present. ²

Caudal vertebrae with ribs which enclose a single prolongation of the air bladder which extends nearly to caudal fin. Only the last 3 or 4 caudal vertebrae possess haemal arches.

They are nest building fishes, clearing a space in shallow water where the eggs are laid. These eggs float at the surface and possess a single large oil globule. The parents guard the eggs and fry. They are predaceous in their feeding habits and are only found in fresh water and are said to take no food when guarding the eggs. Tile fishes sun themselves at the surface during the day and at night venture into very shallow water in quest of prey, and at times travel from pond to pond along the damp ground progressing with head raised, by the means of a series of twists and jumps. The fry live at the surface ill shallow water and are useful destroyers of mosquito larvae. These fishes possess a considerable range of colour change and speedily alter their hue according to their surroundings or mental condition.

Plate XXIII fig. 1: Schematic O. headShield

Cephalic shields. The scales of the head differ from those on the rest of the body in their greater strength and size and by being less imbricate. In addition they are marked with concentric circles, whereas the body scales have numerous striae. Hence they may be regarded as shields rather than scales.

In view of the difficulty of identifying decolourized spirit specimens the writer suggests that the grouping and position of the head shields provides an alternate and accurate method of fixing the identity of the Ceylon species. For this purpose an imaginary line is drawn from each posterior nostril through the sense pit on the cephalic shield behind it. (Plate XXIII fig. 1 ). This shield is the supranasal (S.N.). This line intersects its fellow at a sense pit on the frontal shield (F.) which is interorbital in position.

Each line when produced finishes at the sense pit of the second supraocular (S.O.) above the eye of the opposite side. Next the sense pits along the posterior edge of the preopercle are followed upward until they finish on top of the head. The last pit is joined to its fellow on the opposite side and the shield posterior to this line is the basal (B). Each supranasal shield (S.N.) touches the frontal (R) with its hind edge. Between the supranasals lie the internasals (I.N.) in front of which are the prenasals (P.N.).

A more or less regular rosette of shields is located in the interorbital space in some, in the postorbital space in others. In the former case the frontal (R) is in the centre, in the latter, the large polygonal median shield (M.) which has six marginals touching it. Of these only one touches two sides of (M.) and may be termed the arrow-head shield (A.) from its shape.

Cephalic sense pits. The shape and structure of the sense pits on the head, especially those on the throat and on the posterior edge of the preopercle are of some help in identifying the Ophicephalidae . The development of these pits in the two larger species Ophicephalus marulius and O. striatus undergoes five transitional stages during the growth of the fish from larva to adult.

In the larval fish they are in the primitive state as single conspicuous holes in the bone, opening into a sensory canal which is plainly discernible. Later on, each of these holes develops a transverse septum and the two holes so formed move some distance from each other. Towards the end of this stage, the fish develops an ocellus according to the species, either on the dorsal or caudal fin and now an external membrane covers the two pits which open out in a single row of four to six minute pores which are in a straight line. While the fish is still in the ocellus stage a second row of pores appears and runs nearly parallel to the first row. Finally, in the adult stage the entire covering membrane is perforated by numerous pores giving it a sieve-like appearance. The double pit stage is exposed on dissecting off this membrane.

The smaller Ophicephalidae such as Channa orientalis , O. punctatus and O. gachua do not advance beyond the single pit stage, but the two larger species O. marulius and O. striatus pass through the full process from the single primitive pit to the sieve staqe.

This sieve development appears to be a filtering device to keep out mild. In the smaller species the pits are sufficiently small in themselves to filter solid particles. However, they have the pits partially occluded by an external membrane which develops with maturity and keeps the size of the orifice constant in spite of the increase of the fish in age and dimensions.

Key to species of Ophicephalus

Genus Ophicephalus Bloch

Elongate, cylindrical fishes with cycloid scales. Fins spineless, impaired ones long. Ventrals present, gape wide, teeth on palate well developed. Canines on lower jaw.

Ophicephalus marulius Ham. Buch.

Scales. ⁵ LL 16 - 21,2 40 - 44, (a) L tr. 5,5/11,5; (b) L tr. 7,5/(9,5 - 10,5).

Plate XXIII, fig. 2: O. marulius headShield

Predosals 7 - 8, preventrals 19 - 20, scales between insertions of pectoral and ventral fins 7 - 11.

Scales from eye to posterior edge of preopercle 7 - 8.

Scales from anterior to posterior edges of opercle 3 - 4.

Measurements . Head 3,1 - 3,5; eye 5,6 - 10; interorbit 1,5 - 3,5; snout 1 - 1,5. Length of gape 2,5 in head; width of gape 2,1 - 2,25 in head. Depth of body 4,8 - 6. Lateral line descends two rows of scales underneath the 12th - 14th dorsal ray. Pectoral fin 5 - 5.8 in entire length and equals, postorbital part of head. Ventral fin 7,5 in entire length and somewhat longer than length of eye and snout. - Caudal fin 4,25 - 5,5 in entire length. Rather elongate enlarging gradually to its greatest width with an elliptical posterior edge. Dorsal fin longer than anal by a postorbital head length or by half base of anal fin. Base of dorsal extends behind the end -of the base of anal.

This fish is slender when young but rather thick set when fully grown and is the largest and rarest Ceylon Ophicephalid. Attains to about 800 mm. in length and a weight of about 2,800 grs. The gape is horizontal and extends beyond the eye. Frontal cephalic shield bifurcated anteriorly and usually touching- two internasals, rarely three, or one. Each of these seldom has more than one prenasal. Rosette irregular with frontal shield in centre and seven marginals; two to three shields between rosette and basal shield. This basal shield in some cases, contains a sense pit. (Plate XXIII fig. 2 ). Cephalic shields smooth in adult.

Teeth. In cardiform patches on mandibulars, intermaxillaries, vomerines and palatines. Each mandibular has 7-18 canines directed backwards behind a single row of villiform teeth which deepen to 5 or 6 rows at the symphysis. Each vomerine has 3 rows of villiform teeth. No canines on palatines. Intermaxillaries have 2 or 3 caninoid teeth near symphysis. Parasphenoids a pear shaped cluster.

Colours. The colours vary and the fish can completely change its hue in a few minutes. This feature is probably responsible for the great confusion in the synonomy for this species. The general colours are pale olive (dorsal), bright brassy yellow (lateral), dirty yellow (ventral) merging into grey on the throat. A diffuse dark violet lateral band extends from the eye to the posterior tip of the caudal fin. This band is crossed by five or six large rhomboidal patches which extend a short distance into the dorsal fin. There are one or two dark violet bands on top of the head. The dark violet lateral band is capable of great expansion and when dilated in the adult gives it an almost total dark violet appearance which has earned for it the name of « Kalu maha » - black fish. This darkening occurs chiefly when the fish is active or stimulated by food and at such times even the belly is dark while only the gill membranes remain white. Pectoral, dorsal, anal and caudal fins vary in colour from a pale olive to a dark violet with numerous white spots on the last three fins. Ventrals a dirty white. A white edged ocellus somewhat smaller than the orbit is at times present on the upper half of the base of the caudal fin, but is usually absent in specimens longer than 260 mm. The white spots on the fins are much smaller and some outline the brassy yellow lateral areas and are also present over the lower portion of the transverse dark marks. These white spots can be repressed at will. The throat scales are white with a grey or dark violet centre. The eye is deep orange with a dark vertical diameter.

Plate XXIV: O. marulius (25% of original size)

In the very young fish there is a bright yellow lateral line. running from the orbit to the caudal fin which has a large bright orange spot in its upper half. This spot later assumes a dark centre and develops into an ocellus and at this stage about five or six dark cross bands appear dorsally to the lateral line, while brown dots appear on the dorsal and anal fins and about five dark vertical bands on the caudal; the ventral scales assume a grey centre. Later in life the yellow lateral stripe disappears and is replaced by the dark violet lateral band, while the orange edged ocellus becomes white edged and usually disappears in the adult. The pectorals, ventrals and anal are yellow, dorsal and caudal dark.

The usual method of capture is by laying night lines baited with a living frog or Ophicephalid fish, but large specimens are also shot from the bank as they bask at the surface or are struck with a barbed fish sword.

Reproduction. In Ceylon the breeding season is said to range from April till June. A specimen 98 mm. long with orange lateral line and orange edged caudal ocellus was taken at Vakvella (Southern Province) on August 20th, 1926, and was probably 12 weeks old. A female and young noticed at Vakvella, July, 1928. A female 635 mm. long from Kalutara on September 17, 1928, had mature ova. Hamid Khan, describing the habits of O. marulius from the Punjab where it is common, says that both parents make a nest by biting off pieces of weed. The eggs are 2 mm. in diameter, orange in colour, with a single oil globule in the yolk and a gelatinous cover. They float at the surface and hatch in 54 hours at a temperature of 61-79 F. and in 30 hours at 83-92 F. The fry, which are 4.5 - 5 mm. long on hatching, are zealously guarded by both parents, and in one case a parent fish was seen to leap out of the water after a marauding kingfisher. The young attain to a length of 26 mm. when 19 - 21 days old and 90 mm. when 11 weeks.

Distribution. ⁶ Found in inland waters up to an elevation of 509 metres above sea-level.

Province	Location («!» == abundant)
Central Province	Levella, Peradeniya
Western Province	Veyangoda,Yakyala, Athanagallu Oya!, Kelaniya, Kaluganga!
North Western Province	Maha Oya, Deduru Oya, Batuluoya!
North Central Province	Anuradhapura
Sabaragamuwa Province	Pelmadulla, Kahavatta!
Southern Province!	Ginganga, Vakvella
	Ceylon, India, China, Sumatra, Borneo

Toc

Ophicephalus striatus Bloch

Scales. LL 15 - 18 2 - 3 39 - 42. (a) L tr. 4,5 - 6,5/(9,5 - 13,5); (b) L tr. 5,5 - 7,5/(9.5 - 10.5).

Predorsals 8 - 10, preventrals 15 - 18, scales between insertions of pectoral and ventral fins 4 - 6.

Plate XXIII, fig. 3: O. striatus headShield

Scales from eye to posterior edge of preopercle 8 - 11.

Scales from anterior to posterior edges of opercle 4 - 5.

Measurements . Head 2,7 - 3,9; eye 4 - 10; interorbit 1 -2,5; snout 1,8 - 2; length of gape 2,25 - 2,5 in head; width of gape 2,5 - 2,7 in head. Depth of body 4,8 -6.

Lateral line descends two or three rows underneath the 12th or 13th dorsal ray. In some fishes it is partially interrupted and occasionally there is a second lateral line which is incomplete. Pectoral fin 1,8 - 2 in head. Ventral fin somewhat longer than eye and snout.

Caudal fin 5 - 5,4 in entire length. This fin enlarges rather rapidly to its greatest width and has its posterior margin rounded into a semicircle. Dorsal ahead of anal by 16 - 19 rays or by half the length of the base of anal.

Base of dorsal ends behind base of anal. This fish is elongate and reaches 680 mm. in length, the gape which is slightly oblique extends well beyond the orbit in the adult. Frontal cephalic shield sometimes bifurcated posteriorly, touching the single internasal which has two rows consisting of three small prenasals each. Rosette irregular with frontal shield in centre and with 6-8 marginals. Four or five transverse series of shields between rosette and basal shield. (Plate XXIII fig. 3 ). Cephalic shields rugose in adult.

Teeth. In cardiform patches on mandibulars, intermaxillaries, vomerines and palatines. Each mandibular has 4-7 upright canines behind a single row of villiform teeth which deepen to six rows at symphysis. The anterior mandibular canines are set at a distance from the symphysis. Vomerines are villiform patches of teeth.

Palatines, villiform, in two or three rows. Intermaxillaries villiform, pluriserial. Pharyngeal teeth, strong canines in ovoid patches. A band of teeth on parasphenoid in three longitudinal rows of 20 each tapering posteriorly to a single row.

Colours . The general colours vary with the nature of the water, and range from olive green to dark brown dorsally, white to deep orange laterally with white throat and belly which are more or less mottled with irregular streaks and spots of brown. The top of the head has a few dark spots with a brown patch under the eye which extends to the maxillary and bends at right angles running longitudinally along the maxillary across the white or orange ventral colouration until it reaches the posterior edge of the preopercle where it disappears or is continued to the hind edge of the opercle as a row of dots. The eye colour changes under light and dark conditions from red to yellow and when the fish is resting the lower half of the eye is suffused with brown. The body has about fifteen transverse W-shaped dark bands opening anteriorly which are wider than the interspaces. The dorsal and anal fins are olive with a more or less distinct narrow longitudinal band of white or orange along the base of each. The first and fourth limbs of the "W" break up these bands of the dorsal and anal fins respectively into interspaces and in the dorsal the last two stripes which are darker than the others combine with the interspace to form a pseudo-ocellus in the young of 40 mm. in length which at times persists in the adult. The anal fin has a light coloured external margin. The pectoral is a uniform olive or brown, the ventrals white with four transverse rows of brown dots and there are three transverse stripes of white or orange across the base of the caudal fin which is olive or brown.

PlateXXV: O. striatus (25% of original size)

The newly hatched larva is transparent, but black pigment appears in the eye within 24 hours. Later the entire animal becomes a deep orange which is most intense on the head and along the lateral line. This colouration persists until the animal is 15 mm. long when a greenish tint appears dorsally and a shiny white spot which can be repressed at will is seen on the vertex as in the Cyprinodontidae . The ventral portion of the belly and tail is a dark grey, which colour extends to the posterior tips of the lower caudal rays. With growth the orange pigment gradually -fades and when the fish is 25 mm. long this pigment only persists as a diffuse lateral stripe which is best defined on the tail. The lower half of the eye is white, the upper portion orange, the belly is white while the lower quarter of the tail is dark grey. The fins are a pale yellow with dark margins to the dorsal and anal. Later, when 40 mm. long, dark stripes differentiate out and a pseudo-ocellus forms at the posterior edge of the dorsal fin. Ophicephalus striatus is unable to change its colour so completely or as rapidly as O. marulius , but displays a great range of colour variation caused chiefly by the nature of the water in which it dwells. Specimens taken from rivers and flowing water have white or pale green bellies with sparsely scattered spots. The head and back are olive green. Specimens from swamps or ponds full of decaying vegetation have yellow or bright orange sides and white belly with more numerous spots and streaks and are dark brown dorsally. The cornea also is thickened and of a bluish tint. Specimens taken in still water having access to the sea possess a distinct pink tinge on their otherwise white sides and bellies, while the white scales bordering the dark bands are a pale blue. The back is olive. The eye colour ranges from red to yellow and is more or less suffused with brown.

The «Luhula» when dried in the sun is much esteemed, but the supply is limited and, with the extension of the railway, fresh fish finds its way to other places. Willey, writing in 1909, stated that at Topaveva this fish was split, cleaned and dried over a fire. Later it was sold to traders from Matale at Rs. 7 per bundle of 100 fish.

The flesh of this fish is prescribed as a diet for invalids owing to its digestability and freedom from cloying fat, while the raw flesh tied on to ulcers is said by the villagers to attract the maggots out of them. O. striatus varies in flavour with the water it inhabits, those from flowing water being much superior to fishes taken from swamps or ponds.

There are various devices for capturing this fish. Hook and line with live bait is not so destructive as the Karak geddiya a cone- shaped wicker basket open at both ends. The fisherman walks about in the water pushing the large end into the mud and when be feels a fish beating against the sides he extracts it from the upper opening. Another method is to slash the fishes with a sword after attracting them with a light. At Kantalai tank (Eastern Province) and other places they are shot while basking in the shallows in a depth of a few centimetres of water. The fish makes a dash for deeper water on the approach of the man, but in the shallow water the top of its back is exposed and it is shot. Willey stated that the Veddahs near Minneriya employ a narrow wicker cone which is set in the runnels to and from the nests of these fishes and the parent fish once it enters the cone cannot turn round and is caught.

Reproduction. Oviposition seems to occur several times in the year as newly hatched young have been observed at various seasons. The amber coloured eggs which are 1-25 mm. in diameter are rendered buoyant by the presence of a single large oil globule in the yolk, and float at the surface in a clearing among the weeds. The parent fish mounts guard and has entrance and exit runnels to the nest. - Hatching is said to occur from 24 hours to 3 days after oviposition. The newly hatched larvae, according to Willey , are 3 - 5 mm. long and in two days pigmentation occurs, pectoral fins arise, the mouth opens and branchial respiration commences. The fry are coloured a bright orange and keep together, rising to the surface or sinking under water simultaneously until the fish are about twenty-five days old when they act less in unison and when sixtythree days old the fry studied by Willey in 1910 were 17 mm. long and had commenced to hide in the mud of the aquarium.

Young O. striatus showing red colouration were obtained from the following places at the dates mentioned

Date	Locality	Length of fish
Aug. 6th, 1926	Katupota, (North Western Province)	16 mm.
July, 1926	Kopa kulam. tank, Anuradhapura, (North Central Province)	28 mm.
Dec. 8th, 1927	Murungan, (North Western Province)	20 mm.
May 13th, 1927	Pinketti veva, Batuluoya, (North Western Province)	41 mm.
April 4th, 1927	Vakvella, (Southern Province)	25 mm.
April 24th, 1927	Kehelvattai ella, Moratuwa, (Western Province)	17 mm.
March 24th, 1928	Yakvala, (Western Province)	16 mm.

Distribution. Fresh water ponds, streams, and tanks.

Province	Location («!» == abundant)
Western Province	Colombo!, Dehivala Bolgoda!, Kalutara Baddurueliya, Kelaniya!, Yakvala!, Veyangoda!, Kirindivella
North Western Province	Batuluoya!, Chilaw!, Puttalam, Thatta veva, Nikkaveratiya, Katupota
North Central Province	Anuradhapura!, Rambeva!, Madavachchiya!, Nochchiyagama!, Minneriya!
Northern Province	Murungan, Vannivillankulam!, Tunukai
Southern Province	Dedduva Lake, Vakvella!, Matara!
Northern Province	Murungan !, Jaffna
North Central Province	Anuradhapura !, Rambeva, Medavachchiya !, Nochchiyagama, Minneriya !
Eastern Province	Kantalai Tank!, Kumbukkan Oya!, Kumana!
Sabaragamuwa Province	Pelmadulla, Kahavatta, Kegalla
	Although common everywhere in the low-country it is absent from the Tissamaharama tanks (Southern Province) and at Kumana (Eastern Province) which is close by. This fish is found in the low-country up to a height of 119.5 metres above sea-level.
	Ceylon, India, Burma, Siam, Penang, Malay Peninsula, Malay Archipelago, South China, and introduced by man to the Philippines and Hawaiian Islands

ToC

Ophicephalus punctatus Bloch.

Predorsals 5, preventrals 10, scales between insertions of pectoral and ventral fins 3, scales from eye to posterior edge of preopercle 5, scales from anterior to posterior edges of opercle 2 - 3.

Plate XXIII, fig. 4: O. punctatus headShield

Measurements. Head 2.9 - 3, eye 6.5 - 8.5, interorbit 1.4 - 2, snout 1 - 2, length of gape 2.5 - 3 in head, width of gape 3 - 3.2 in head.

Depth of body 4 - 6 in entire length Lateral line descends one scale under 11th - 13th dorsal ray. In some specimens this line is interrupted and occasionally there is a second lateral line which is incomplete.

Pectoral fin 4.75 - 5.1 in entire length, reaches anal and is as long as half the bead length.

Ventral fins barely reach anal.

Caudal fin 4.2 - 5 in entire length, is broad and well rounded, nearly circular in outline.

Dorsal ahead of anal by 9 - 10 rays or by about half the base of anal fin. Its base ends behind that of anal.

A very thick set fish with a very oblique gape which does not extend behind the orbit. The head is triangular and tapers into a pointed snout. The fish attains a length of 200 mm.

Sense pits of head single. Frontal shield, which does not touch the single internasal, is in centre of rosette. Prenasals absent. Rosette regular, elliptical and interorbital, with two transverse rows of shields between itself and the basal (Plate XXIII fig. 4 ).

Teeth. Cardiform patches. Each mandibular has 3 - 6 canines behind a single row of villiform teeth which deepens to 5 or 6 at symphysis. Vomerines, two rows of villiform teeth. Palatines villiform in two or three rows. Intermaxillaries pluriserial, villiform. Pharyngeal teeth canines in ovoid patches. One or two teeth on parasphenoid.

Colours. (Adult.) The colours are less affected by the nature of the water than in the two previous species. Dorsally it is olive with greenish yellow sides and white, pale green or yellow ventral colouration. Occasionally the throat is bluish green. In some specimens there are numerous minute black dots on the sides of the head and body. One well defined dark brown stripe runs from mid eye to the top corner of the opercle, another descends from the eye to the corner of the mouth and extends across the middle of preopercle and the opercle. The eye is orange with a vertical brown diameter. Two or three pairs of blotches which converge anterioriy lie on top of the postorbital part of the head and there are four black dots on the interorbital space.

PlateXXVI: O. punctatus (25% of original size)

A well defined black shoulder mark exists above the pectoral fin. Six or seven dark transverse triangular bands descend from the base of the dorsal to the lateral line on which they have their bases. These are somewhat narrower than the interspaces. Ventrally there are ten dark streaks. The fins range from pale yellow to dark olive and have a light border. The dorsal is marked longitudinally with four or five rows of spots, of which the lowest series are the largest. The anal has three or four such rows. The caudal has four or five indistinct dark transverse bands with a light olive transverse band near the base. Pectorals with five transverse bands, the white ventrals are at times dusted with black.

(The young) , when fully pigmented, possess three yellow stripes on a chocolate background which is very light ventrally. On each side there is a golden lateral stripe as wide as the orbit and extending from the snout, through the eye to the middle of the caudal fin. A median yellow stripe runs from the snout along the base of the dorsal fin. This colouration persists up to a length of 13 mm. after which the median stripe on the head separates from that portion which is along the base of the dorsal fin. The body scales now possess dark spots, about six transverse dark bands appear on the body and cut up the lateral line, and there are three dark bands on the caudal fin. When the fish is 19.5 mm. long, the fronto-median yellow line which is spindle shaped commences to shorten and later disappears, but the yellow lateral lines persist for some time after the fish assumes its adult colouration and have been seen on specimens 70 mm. long.

Economically O. punctatus is the second most important Ophicephalid and is common in many fish markets throughout the greater part of the year. It is taken by hook, Karak geddiya, cast nets and baling water out of ponds.

Reproduction. O. punctatus probably breeds several times during the year as the striped young have been collected at different seasons.

The amber coloured ova are 1.2 mm. in diameter and contain a single large oil globule in the yolk which enables them to float at the surface.

The eggs are laid in shallow water where there is plenty of food. No nest is constructed and the young of Indian specimens, according to Sundara Raj , hatch in 24 hours. The fry measure 3.25 mm. in length and are 5 mm. long on the fourth day when they assume their chocolate and gold colouration.

The striped fry were obtained from the following localities:

Locality	Date
Yakvala, (Western Province)	March 24th, 1928
Yakvala, (Western Province)	May 2nd, 1928
Batuluoya, (North Western Province)	May 12th, 1927
Batuluoya, (North Western Province)	June 6th, 1926
Kalpitiya, (North Western Province)	June 10th, 1926
Vakvella, (Southern Province)	Aug. 21st, 1926
Bellana, (Western Province)	April 1908

Distribution. This fish is plentiful in the larger ponds and tanks of the Low-country but is rarely found in flowing water.

Province	Location («!» == abundant)
Western Province	Colombo !, Dehivala, Athidiya, Kalutara, Yakvala, Veyangoda, Kelaniya, Bolgoda!, Baduru Eliya, Negombo!
North Western Province	Batuluoya!, Chilaw!, Katupota, Kurunegala
Southern Province	Bentota, Galle !, Matara, Tissamaharama !
Northern Province	Murungan !, Jaffna
North Central Province	Anuradhapura !, Rambeva, Medavachchiya !, Nochchiyagama, Minneriya !
Eastern Province	Kantalai !
	Ceylon, India, Burma, Java, Singapore

ToC

Ophicephalus gachua Ham. Buch. (Plate XXIII)

Scales. LL. 10 - 12 * I * 28 - 32. (a) L tr. (4.5)/(7.5) (b) L tr. (5.5 - 6.5)/(6.5 - 7.5)

Predorsals 5 - 6, preventrals 9 - 12, scales between insertions of pectoral and ventral fins 3 - 5, commonly 4. Scales from eye to posterior edge of preopercle 5 - 6, scales from anterior to posterior edges of opercle 2 - 3.

PlateXXIII, fig. 5: Head shields of O. gachua

Measurements . Head 2.9 - 3.25, eye 4.8, interorbit 1 - 2.5, snout 1 - 1.5 orbits. Length of gape 2.5 - 2.9 in head, width of gape 2.7 - 3 in head.

Depth of body 5 - 6.5 in entire length. Lateral line descends under 7 - 10 dorsal ray. Pectoral fin reaches anal and is equal to postorbital part of head or is contained 4.2 - 5 in entire length. Ventrals behind pectorals, do not reach anal. Caudal 3.6 - 5 in length. This fin is broad and inclined to be elliptical along its vertical axis in the living fish. Dorsal ahead of anal by 9 - 12 rays or by half base of anal or about onethird base of dorsal. An elongate fish with a rather oblique gape which does not extend beyond the posterior edge of orbit. O. gachua is the smallest member of the genus Ophicephalus and rarely exceeds a length of 156 mm.

Sense pits of head single. Frontal shield touches the single internasal anteriorly and the cephalic rosette posteriorly. Prenasals absent. Rosette touches the frontal and basal shields, is regular, circular and consists of the median shield surrounded by 6 marginals. Both frontal and basal shields are triangular or pentagonal in shape. (Plate XXIII fig. 4 and XXIII fig. 5 ).

Teeth . Cardiform bands on intermaxillaries, palatines and mandibulars. Each mandibular has a single row of 13-20 close-set canines behind a single row of villiform teeth which deepens into about 7 rows at symphysis. Vomerines consist of six canines on each side behind a single villiform row. Palatines have 12 caninoid teeth on each side in a single row behind a single row of villiform teeth. Intermaxillaries villiform, pluriserial bands. Pharyngeals canine, in ovoid patches. Teeth on parasphenoid a few or none.

Colours. Specimens from ponds full of decaying vegetation are very dark with red margins to their fins, whereas fishes from ponds with a sandy bottom are light in colour with pale orange margins to their fins.

As in O. striatus , this species exhibits the dark. W-shaped transverse bands which are about twice as broad as their interspaces and show best on young specimens of about 50 mm. in length. Dorsally the colour varies from a light cinnamon to a very dark brown which is almost black. The second limbs of the "W" cross the back in 8-12 dark stripes which fuse with each other on reaching the lateral line and extend ventrally nearly up to the base of the anal fin.

These stripes are intersected by four narrow longitudinal streaks which run on either side of the base of the dorsal fin. Belly white, throat a pale bluish green. A dark lateral stripe extends from the snout through the eye to opercle, while another runs from the anterior nostril along the maxillary border into the light ventral colouration and along the ventral margin of the preopercle. There are four diffuse dark blotches on the postorbital portion of the top of the head, occasionally a series of minute black dots are present on the sides of the head and body. The eyes are orange with a brown outer rim. The dorsal fin has two upper and lower longitudinal pale olive brown bands separated from each other by a bluish green band. The outer margin is a deep orange or red and the first limbs of the "W" bands enter the basal portion of the fin and in young specimens extend to the outer margin.

Anal bluish green indistinctly crossed by the 4th limbs of the W-shaped bands. There is a greyish brown outer longitudinal stripe bordered externally by an orange orred marginal stripe, while the distal tips of the fin rays are white. Pectorals orange with six dark transverse stripes which are as wide or wider than the interspaces. Ventrals a uniform pale yellow. Caudal with a light coloured transverse band at its base and with about 8 broad transverse dark bands, external margin orange or red.

The young specimens are a pale reddish yellow dorsally with a deeper diffuse orange lateral streak from snout to caudal fin, extending through upper half or orbit. Lower half of animal, including lower half of eye, a dark grey. Vertex pigmented with black. Fins pale yellow. Later, after the fish attains complete colouration and is about 23 mm. long an ocellus with an orange rim, which is about twice as large as the eye, often appears on the last five dorsal rays and persists until the fish is about 44-56 mm. long, occasionally there are two such ocelli one behind the other. The proportions of ocellated to non-ocellated young appears to be 1 : 1.557 as seen from the following tables

Specimens from Diyatalawa, August, 1926.

Length of specimen in mm.	Numbers of ocellated specimen	Numbers of not ocellated specimen
22	1
26		3
27	3
28	2
29	4
30	4	3
31	2	3
32	3	2
34		2
35	1	1
36	3
38		1

Ration of ocellated to non-ocellated specimens is 1 : 1.66.

Specimens from Mankulam, March, 1928.

Length of specimen in mm.	Numbers of ocellated specimen	Numbers of not ocellated specimen
34	1
36	2	2
38	1	1
40		4
41		1
42		1
44	1
45	1	1
46	1
49	1
50	1
51	2
53	1
54	2
56	2	1

Ration of ocellated to non-ocellated specimens is 1 : 1.454.

A bleached specimen of Ophicephalus gachua about 100 mm. long was obtained from Yakvala, September 18th, 1928. It had evidently been depigmented by dwelling in a stream which travels some distance under a number of large rocks, Its eyes were black, but the entire body was orange yellow with a few contracted melanophores on body, but no on fins which had a few red vertical bands. After two weeks in a glass tank it assumed normal pigmentation on the sides, at which stage the specimen was lost.

Ophicephalus gachua flourishes in ponds rendered so stagnant as to prove toxic to most fishes, The swarms of tadpoles and mosquito larvae which thrive in these ponds supply food for the adults and fry respectively. The fish is very hardy and exceedingly active on land, progressing by a series of leaps. It propels itself into the air by bending its body, planting its tail on the ground and straightening itself with a jerk, and it is a common sight to find these fishes crossing over land while the pond they inhabit is baled dry by villagers in search of fish. On account of its hardiness and the ease with which it is captured it is a favourite live bait for its larger relatives and the part it plays in the capture of the giant O. marulius reminds one of the old rhyme « Big fleas have little fleas, etc., » as it is used to capture O. striatus which is in turn used as bait for O. marulius .

The fisherman inserts the hook into its back without injuring the air bladder and fastens the float close to the hook. So long as the fish can swim at the surface and breathe air it remains alive throughout the night, but if the air bladder is perforated it loses its buoyancy and probably dies of asphyxia.

Although small, it is a well flavoured fish but only the poorest classes eat it, as the majority are repelled by the unattractive nature of its abode.

Reproduction. According to Hamid Khan, the female swims belly upwards, the male lies over her crosswise and spurts milt over the eggs which are liberated during one minute intervals in batches of 200 or 300. Both fishes keep afloat during the process by means of their fins.

In Ceylon the swarms of fry are occasionally found in the back waters of streams.

Distribution. Taken both in flowing and sedentary water especially in stagnant shallow ponds. Found from sea-level to Diyatalava (U.P.) 1,217 metres above sea level. When taken from ponds with comparatively clean water in some localities such as Gampaha, Dehivala (Western Province), Galle (Southern Province), Channa orientalis is found together with this fish in equal numbers. However, at Mankulam (Northern Province) this is the only Ophicephalid in the forest pools formed along dried up stream beds. It has not been taken from the Tissamaharama tanks and ponds where O. punctatus appears to be the sole but abundant representative of the family.

O. gachua can withstand a considerable range of temperature from the warm waters arising from the hot springs at Kanniya (Eastern Province) to the cold waters of Diyatalava (U.P).

Locality	Date
Yakvala, (Western Province)	March 24th, 1928
Yakvala, (Western Province)	May 2nd, 1928
Batuluoya, (North Western Province)	May 12th, 1927
Batuluoya, (North Western Province)	June 6th, 1926
Kalpitiya, (North Western Province)	June 10th, 1926
Vakvella, (Southern Province)	Aug. 21st, 1926
Bellana, (Western Province)	April 1908

Distribution. This fish is plentiful in the larger ponds and tanks of the Low-country but is rarely found in flowing water.

Province	Location («!» == abundant)
Western Province	Colombo, Kelaniya, Kaluaggala, Yakvala, Kirindivella, Athidiya, Kalutara
North Western Province	Katupota Kurunegalla, Arnamaduva veva
Sabaragamuwa Province	Pilapitiya Kegalla, Nambapana
Central Province	Kandy, Peradeniya !, Kadugannawa!, Ambanpitiya ela, Kotagala
Northern Province !	Murungan, Jaffna, Mankulam!, Vannivillankulam
Eastern Province	Kanniya
North Central Province	Anuradhapura, Rambeva
	Ceylon, India, Singapore, Malay Peninsula, Siam, Andaman Islands, Baluchistan, Afghanistan, Persia

Genus Channa Gronow

Elongate, cylindrical fishes with cycloid scales. Fins spineless, unpaired ones long. Ventrals absent. Gape wide. Teeth on palate well developed. Canines on lower jaw.

Channa orientalis Bloch et Schneider

Predorsals 6 - 7, prenasals 17 - 20, scales between lateral line and insertion of pectorals 2. Scales from eye to posterior edge of preopercle 5 - 6. Scales from anterior to posterior edges of opercle 2 - 3.

Plate XXIII fig. 6: C. orientalis headShield

Measurements. Head 2.8 - 3.5, eye 4.7 - 7, interorbit 1 - 2.15, snout 1 - 1.5 orbits. Length of gape 2.5 - 2.75 in head. Width of gape 2.5 - 2.75 in length of head.

Depth of body 5 - 6.5 in entire length. Lateral line descends under 8th dorsal ray. Pectoral fin reaches anal and is equal to postorbital part of head or is contained 4 - 5 in entire length. Ventrals absent. Caudal 3.9 - 5 in entire length. This fin is almost a perfect circle when expanded in the living fish. Dorsal ahead of anal by 10 - 11 rays or by half the base of anal or by about one third base of dorsal.

An elongate fish with rather an oblique gape which does not extend beyond the eye. Head rather blunt and rounded. It is the smallest member of the family and seldom exceeds 105 mm. in length. ⁸

Sense pits of head single. Frontal shield touches the single internasal anteriorly and the cephalic rosette posteriorly. Prenasals absent. Rosette lies between and touches the frontal and basal shields, is regular, circular, and consists of the median shield surrounded by six marginals. Both frontal and basal shields are triangular or pentagonal in shape. (Plate XXIII fig. 6 ).

Teeth. Cardiform bands on intermaxillaries, palatines and mandibulars. Each mandibular has 10 - 20 canines behind a single row of villiform teeth which deepens to about 7 rows at symphysis.

Vomerines consist of a single row of 3 - 4 strong caninoid teeth on each side, behind a single villiform row. Palatines are in line with them and on each side is a row of 10 - 12 caninoid teeth behind a single row of villiform teeth.

Intermaxillaries, villiform, pluriserial, cardiform bands. Pharyngeals, canines in ovoid patches. No teeth on parasphenoid.

Coloures. This fish does not present any well marked colour variation although some individuals are lighter than others and possess a blue abdomen.

As in O. striatus this species exhibits although less perfectly, the dark W-shaped transverse bands which open anteriorly. These bands are 2 or 3 rows of scales wide and are about twice as broad as their interspaces which usually consist of a single row of scales and show best on young specimens of about 50 mm. in length. This fish is almost identical with O. gachua in colour. Dorsally it varies from a light cinnamon to brown and is an olive brown ventrally. The second limbs of the "W" cross the back in 10-13 dark stripes which fuse on reaching the lateral line, but in the posterior W shaped bands the third limbs extend ventrally nearly up to the base of the anal fin. Belly and throat bluish green. A dark lateral stripe extends from the snout through the eye to opercle, while another runs from the anterior nostril along the maxillary border into the light ventral colouration of the preopercle. There is a diffuse dark line running across the top of the head from the right eye to the top of the left gill cleft, which intersects a similar line from the left eye to the right gill cleft. There is also a dark line connecting the anterior nares and another behind it connecting the eyes across the interorbital space. All these lines on the top of the head are intensified after the fish has been kept in dark surroundings. Occasionally a series of minute black dots appear on the sides of the head and body. The eyes are orange with a brown outer rim.

PlateXXVII: C. orientalis.

Anal bluish green indistinctly crossed by the 4th limbs of the "W" bands. There is a dark olive or slate coloured longitudinal band near the external edge, but no orange margin. The distal tips of the fin rays are white giving the fin a white margin. Pectorals orange with 6 - 7 transverse dark stripes on each which are equal to or wider than the interspaces. Caudal a pale yellow with seven transverse dark stripes which are much wider than the interspaces. The margin of this fin is orange.

In the young specimens the colours are as follows: A pale reddish yellow dorsally with a deeper diffuse lateral streak of orange from snout to caudal fin, extending through upper half of orbit. A dark stripe from snout to posterior margin of opercle. Lower half of animal, including lower half of orbit, a dark grey. Vertex pigmented with black. Fins pale yellow. After attaining complete colouration an occasional specimen displays an ocellus on the last five rays of the dorsal fin, occasionally there may be two or three such ocelli one behind the other or there may be an irregular dot or streak of black pigment. Generally there is no such mark or ocellus. This ocellus has been found in specimens ranging usually from 25-53 mm. At Pelmadulla, where this fish is the commonest Ophicephalid, the ocellus often persists in adult specimens as seen from the following table.

Length of fish in mm.	Number of dorsal ocelli
80	0
60	1
80	0
63	1
67	2
65	1
56	3
78	1
88	1

Reproduction. Young with mother taken at Nugegoda, January 25th, 1928. Female with mature ova Yalevala, March 24th, 1928.

Distribution. In pools of clean water close to streams. It is often taken together with Ophicephalus gachua which it resembles greatly in shape and colour.

Province	Location («!» == abundant)
Western Province !	Yakvala! Athidiya!, Dehivala!, Homagama, Anassigalla, Nugegoda
Southern Province	Vakvella!, Udugama
Sabaragamuwa Province	Vaganga, Kahavatta!, Pelmadulla!, Rakvana

References

Footnotes

² Günther , Day and Herre report that Channa has no pyloric caeca. I have dissected several specimens of C. orientalis from different localities and have always found two well developed pyloric caeca, one about half the length of the stomach, the other as long as or longer than the stomach. Back

⁴ W.P. Western Province; S.P. Southern Province. C.P. Central Province; Sab. Sabaragamuwa. N.C.P. - North-Central Province; N.W.P. = North-Western Province; E.P. = Eastern Province; N.P. = Northern Province. Back

⁵ The number of perforate scales in the lateral line (LL) are signified in three figures. The number of scales this line descends is denoted by the middle figure, thus 15.2.29. When the line dips two scales after running in a straight line for 15 scales. In view of this descent of the lateral line it has been found necessary to give two transverse scale readings. (i) L. tr. is from the ventral fin to the dorsal and is anterior to the dip of the lateral line. (ii) L. tr. is from the anal to the dorsal fin and is posterior to this dip. Predorsal scales are counted from behind the, basal shield of the head (Vide Cephalic shield- page 8 ) down to the origin of the dorsal fin. The scales between the ventrals are also included in reckoning the preventral scales. Measurements are, as follows: Entire length == tip of snout to base of caudal fin exclusive of fin. Entire length == tip of snout to base caudal fin exclusive of fin. Head == (entire length / head length); Snout == (snout / eye); Eye == (head / eye); Interorbit == (interorbit / eye); Back

⁸ « Luhula nethi vallai kannaya pandithayalu ». Sinhalese proverb meaning « When the pond contains no Luhula the Kannaya becomes pompous ». Back

Acknowledgement and Source(s)

This part was published under the above title in: Spolia Zeylanica . XV, pt 2 (Ceylon Journ. Sci. B.) pp 79-111, 1929. We have tried hard to find the legal copyright owner, but we failed. In case the owner comes across this text we would wish he could contact us, for settling the claims. Thankyou.

Local names	Language	Translation	Locality (Province, village)
Gan ara	Singhalese	River ara	Western Province, Southern Province, Central Province
Ara	Singhalese		Western Province, Sabaragamuwa
Kalu maha	Singhalese	Black fish	Western Province: Veyangoda, Gampa ha
Iru viral	Tamil

Local names	Language,	Translation
Luhula	Singhalese
Hal path maha	Singhalese	Hal leaf fish (Hal == Vateria acuminata )
Viral	Tamil

Local names	Language	Translation	Province
Mada ara	Singhalese	Mud ara	North Western Province, Western Province, Southern Province, Central Province
Mada kannaya	Singhalese	Mud kannaya	Western Province
Mada kariya	Singhalese		Western Province
Madaya	Singhalese		Western Province
Madaya, Korruvai	Tamil

Local names	Language	Translation
Parandel kannaya	Singhalese	Waterweed kannaya
Para korruvai	Tamil	Pariah korruvai

Local names	Language	Translation
Kolla kannaya	Singhalese	Leaf kannaya
Gas kannaya	Singhalese	Tree kannaya

Cuvier et Valenciennes.	Histoire Naturel de Poissons. VII, 1831 .
Tennant, J. E.	Nat. Hist. Ceylon, 1861 .
Günther, A.	Catalog Fishes of Brit. Mus. III. 1859-1861 .
Day, F.	Fishes of India, 1878-1888 .
Willey, A.	Spolia Zeylanica VI (21) 1909 , VII, 1911 .
Duncker, G.	Naturhist. Mus. Hamburg, XXIX 1912 .
Bean and Weed.	Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. XLII, 1912.
Sundara, Raj, B.	Records Ind. Mus. XII, 1916 .
Weber and Beaufort.	Fishes Indo Austr. Archipel. IV, 1922 .
Khan, H.	Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. XXIX, (3-4) 1924 .
Khan, H.	. Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. XXX, (3-4) [1925. snakeheads.org].
Herre, A. W. C. T.	Philippine Journ. of Science XIV, (6) 1924 .